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Volume 5 Issue 1 (2007) DOI:10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.313

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Lexicon and Description of Sui Adjective Intensifiers

James N. Stanford

Michigan State University

Sui, an indigenous minority language of southwest China, has an elaborate system of adjective intensification. Adjectives are intensified with word-specific, bound morphemes that usually either rhyme with the base or alliterate with the base. Stanford (2007) notes morpho-phonological patterns that suggest reduplication, rhyme, alliteration, The Emergence of the Unmarked (McCarthy & Prince 1994, Yip 2001), identity avoidance, and “Copy But Don’t Repeat” (Kennard 2004). However, the adjective intensifiers defy a simple, fully predictable explanation in such terms; the intensifier lexicon may be best described as “patterned variety,” a case of lexicalized poetry or a poeticized lexicon. Word formation is guided by general patterns, but each specific intensifier may vary within those overall guidelines. Many adjectives have multiple intensifiers that bear subtle semantic and pragmatic distinctions. The current paper serves as a complement to Stanford (2007) by providing a detailed lexicon of the Sui adjective intensifiers for future reference and further analysis. This lexicon is based on the author’s fieldwork and represents the first detailed account of Sui adjective intensifiers for the wider linguistic community.

1. Introduction^[1]

The Sui people are an indigenous ethnic minority of southwest Chin, numbering 346,000 in a 1990 census (He et al. 1992:1) and reported to be 406,902 in 2000 (Xuecun Wei, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences). The great majority (93%) live in southern Guizhou Province (Burusphat et al. 2003). The language, a member of the Tai-Kadai family, is isolating, tonal, and largely monosyllabic.

1.1 Sui Phonology

Sui consonants are given below following Li (1948), Shuiyu Diaocha Baogao^[2] (1956), Zhang (1980), Luo (1992), Zeng & Yao (1996), Edmondson et al. (2004), as well as the author’s observations of the specific village under investigation, Ljaj Ku Tsong (Zhonghe Township, Sandu Autonomous Sui County).

**Table 1. Consonants^[3]**
p	t	ts	tɕ	k	q	ʔ
p^h	t^h	ts^h	t^h	k^h	q^h
^mb	ⁿd
ʔb	ʔd
m̥	n̥		ɲ̥	ŋ̥
m	n		ɲ	ŋ
ʔm	ʔn		ʔɲ	ʔŋ
f	s		ɕ	x
w	z			ɣ	ʁ
				ʔɣ
	l		j
ʔw			ʔj

Table 2 outlines the Sui tone inventory of Ljaj Ku Tsong Village. The inventory is based on the author’s observations and comparison with Shuiyu Diaocha Baogao (1956), Zhang (1980), Luo (1992), Zeng & Yao (1996). The table follows Chao’s (1930) 1-5 scale for contour tones (1=low, 5=high). Tone numbers are based on the traditional system used for areal languages (e.g. Li 1948, Zhang 1980, Edmondson & Solnit 1988). The even/odd distinction in tone numbers represents an interpretation of a historical tone split; even-numbered tones indicate syllables that are supposed to have had historically voiced onsets, while odd-numbered tones indicate syllables with historically voiceless onsets (Li 1948, Edmondson & Solnit 1988). Tones 7 and 8 represent “checked” syllables (defined in this transcription system as syllables ending in –p, -t, or –k). Finally, checked syllables are distinguished as S (short vowel) and L (long vowel).^[4]

**Table 2. Sui tones in Ljaj Ku Tsong village**
Tone 1	Tone 2	Tone 3	Tone 4	Tone 5	Tone 6	Tone 7S	Tone 7L	Tone 8S	Tone 8L
13	31	33	53	35	24	55	35	32	31

1.2 Sui Adjective Intensifiers

Sui has an elaborate system of adjective intensification that involves rhyme and alliteration. First, note that a generic, non-word-specific intensifier can be used to intensify adjectives, as exemplified in (1).

(1)	vɑ:ŋ¹	‘tall’	→	vɑ:ŋ¹ɕɔ³	‘very tall’
	ʔnəm¹	‘dark/black’	→	ʔnəm¹ɕɔ³	‘very dark/black’
	ʁoŋ⁵	‘young’	→	ʁoŋ⁵ɕɔ³	‘very young’

However, intensifiers also commonly take the form of a word-specific, bound intensifier. Such intensifiers may be divided into two major classes that Stanford (2007) calls the Rhyming Class and the Alliterative Class. Examples of the Rhyming Class are given in (2).

(2)	a.	ʁɑ:t⁷	‘agile’	→	ʁɑ:t⁷ʨɑ:t⁸	‘very agile’
	b.	ʔmɛj⁵	‘selfish’	→	ʔmɛj⁵tɛj¹	‘very selfish’ (often referring to a child)
	c.	fɑ:ŋ³	‘wide’	→	fɑ:ŋ³l^jɑ:ŋ²	‘very wide’
	d.	tom¹	‘dull’	→	tom¹ʔnom¹	‘very dull’
	e.	^mbu³	‘bulging’	→	^mbu³ ʨ^hu⁵	‘very bulging’
	f.	ʔnəm¹	‘dark/black’	→	ʔnəm¹fəm²	‘very dark/black’
	g.	lɑp⁷	‘garrulous’	→	lɑp⁷tɑp⁸	‘very garrulous’
	h.	p^jɛ:k⁷	‘dirty’	→	p^jɛ:k⁷l^jɛ:k⁷	‘very dirty’
	i.	m̥ow¹	‘crude, rash’	→	m̥ow¹low¹	‘very crude/rash’
	j.	^mb^jɑ³	‘blurry’	→	^mb^jɑ³ʨɑ⁴	‘very blurry’

Examples of the Alliterative Class are given in (3).

(3)	a.	ʁɑ:t⁷	‘agile’	→	ʁɑ:t⁷ʁow¹	‘very agile’
	b.	ʔmɛj⁵	‘selfish’	→	ʔmɛj⁵ʔmʊ:t⁷	‘very selfish’ (general usage)
	d.	ɕu¹	‘green’	→	ɕu¹ɕiŋ⁵	‘very green’
	e.	tɕ^hoŋ⁵	‘spicy’	→	ʨ^hoŋ⁵ ʨ^hɑt⁷	‘very spicy’
	f.	zɑ³	‘light’	→	zɑ³zu¹	‘very light/casual’ (attitude)
	g.	zɑ³	‘light’	→	zɑ³zeŋ³	‘very light’ (weight)
	h.	qəm¹	‘bitter’	→	qəm¹qe⁵	‘very bitter’
	i.	ɑ¹	‘sharp’	→	ɕɑ¹ɕɛn¹	‘very sharp’
	j.	ʁəm¹	‘muddled’	→	ʁəm¹ʁoj¹	‘very muddled’

In most cases, the intensifiers are word-specific, bound morphemes which are not attested elsewhere in the language. Homonymy with other lexical items outside the adjective intensifier lexicon occasionally occurs, but Sui speakers consider such rare homonyms to be coincidental and unrelated.

In addition to the two major classes of rhyming and alliterative intensifiers, some intensifiers do not show any phonological resemblance with their bases. For example, xom³ ‘sour’ → xom³ p^jɑ:t⁷ ‘very sour’. Stanford (2007) suggests the possibility that such items represent historical compounds where the second syllable has lost its original status as a stand-alone word.

Comparing (2a-b) and (3a-b) above, note that a given base adjective may have more than one intensifier. Subtle semantic and pragmatic differences are often observed in such instances. Another example is given in (4).

(4)	ʨoŋ³	‘thin/skinny’	→	ʨoŋ³ ʨɛn¹	‘very thin/skinny’ (most common/general)
			→	ʨoŋ³ ʨop⁷	‘very thin/skinny’ (derogatory, higher intensity than ʨoŋ³ ʨɛn¹)
			→	ʨoŋ³ f^joŋ⁴	‘very thin/skinny’ (higher intensity than ʨoŋ³ ʨɛn¹)

Finally, within the Rhyming Class, there is a subset of complex rhyming expressions involving three or more rhyming syllables. For example:

(5)	t^jəŋ	‘full’
	t^jəŋ n^jəŋ	‘very full’
	t^jəŋ n^jəŋ s^jəŋ	‘extremely full’

2. Analysis

A summary of Stanford’s (2007) analysis is given in §2.

2.1 The rhyming class

In the Rhyming Class of intensifiers (e.g. (2)), Stanford (2007) finds clear evidence of The Emergence of the Unmarked (McCarthy & Prince 1994), the process whereby unmarked forms “emerge” in environments such as reduplication where base-reduplicant identity is ranked lower than markedness constraints (in the Optimality Theoretic terms of Prince & Smolensky (1993).) Stanford follows Yip’s (2001) analysis of reduplication in Chaoyang and other Chinese languages, finding that coronal onsets (i.e., unmarked onsets) are generally favored in the Sui intensifiers. Examples are given in (6).

(6)	a.	vɑ:ŋ¹	‘tall’	→	vɑ:ŋ¹tɕɑ:ŋ²	‘very tall’
	b.	fɑ:ŋ³	‘wide’	→	fɑ:ŋ³ l^jɑ:ŋ²	‘very wide’
	c.	^mbu³	‘protruding’	→	^mbu³tɕ^hu⁵	‘very protruding’
	d.	ʔmɛj⁵	‘stingy’	→	ʔmɛj⁵tɛj¹	‘very stingy’
	e.	xom³	‘sour’	→	xom³tom⁴	‘very sour’
	f.	qɔn⁴	‘short’	→	qɔn⁴ʔn^jɔn³	‘very short’
	g.	mət⁷	‘tight’	→	mət⁷tɕət⁸	‘very tight’
	h.	pən¹	‘stupid’	→	pən¹ʔnən¹	‘very stupid’

Stanford reports that the intensifier has a coronal onset in 95% (56/59) of the cases where the base onset is non-coronal (as in (6)). For both coronal and non-coronal onset bases, the intensifier has a coronal onset in 88% (88/100) of the cases.

However, Stanford notes that identity avoidance also plays a role in the choice of intensifier onset. A base with a coronal onset, e.g. ləŋ, does not normally reduplicate as *ləŋ ləŋ. Instead, it reduplicates as ləŋ təŋ; i.e., the intensifier remains coronal (following TETU), but the manner of articulation has changed. This suggests the presence of identity avoidance working in conjunction with TETU. Specifically, Stanford follows Yip’s (1995a) use of *REPEAT (Identical syllables cannot be adjacent) and Kennard’s (2004) “Copy But Don’t Repeat.” In this way, a combination of TETU and identity avoidance is used to explain ləŋ→ ləŋ təŋ and ləŋ→ ləŋ *ləŋ.

As for tone, Stanford observes that rhyming intensifiers often copy the tone of their bases, although there are some cases where a non-falling-tone base has a falling-tone intensifier.

2.2 The alliterative class

Intensifiers in the Alliterative Class (e.g. (3)) do not show evidence of the TETU effects found in the Rhyming Intensifiers. The rhymes of alliterative intensifiers show a great deal of variety. Further, there is no apparent preference for unmarked forms as would be expected of TETU. Identity avoidance is clearly present since the intensifier rhymes differ from their base rhymes, yet the specific choice of rhyme appears to be quite flexible.

2.3 Patterned variety

Stanford concludes that Sui intensifiers represent a system of patterned variety that could be described as lexicalized poetry or as a poeticized lexicon. First, note in (7-8) that the presence of multiple intensifier options precludes the possibility of strict word formation rules for a given base.

(7)	p^hɑ¹:
		p^hɑ¹	‘gray’	→	p^hɑ¹p^hoj¹	‘very gray’ (e.g. ash spots on clothing)
		p^hɑ¹	‘gray’	→	p^hɑ¹p^həŋ¹	‘very gray/pale’ (especially referring to skin)
		p^hɑ¹	‘gray’	→	p^hɑ¹p^hɛw³	‘very gray’
		p^hɑ¹	‘gray’	→	p^hɑ¹p^hok⁷	‘very gray’ (often referring to a distant, misty scene)

(8)	xom³_:
		xom³	‘sour’	→	xom³tom⁴	‘very sour’
		xom³	‘sour’	→	xom³ʔnom⁵	‘very sour’

The intensifiers (exemplified in (7-8)) follow general guidelines (rhyme, alliteration, TETU, “Copy But Don’t Repeat”), yet the specific features of a given intensifier may vary within those general guidelines. For example, in rhyming intensifiers, TETU encourages a coronal onset, yet the specific choice of coronal varies.

Alliterative intensifiers further illustrate this patterned variety on the tonal level. Stanford observes that the tone of an alliterative intensifier and the tone of its base usually come from the same side of the tone split discussed above. In other words, both are usually either even-numbered tones or odd-numbered tones. Thus, the tones of alliterative intensifiers exhibit patterned variety: the specific choice of intensifier tone can vary, but it usually must stay within the same side of the tone split, even or odd.

Stanford’s analysis may be confirmed through future cross-linguistic comparisons. Phenomena that appear to be at least generally similar to Sui adjective intensifiers have been reported in nearby Tai-Kadai languages such as Bouyei (Yu et al. 1994), but no data are available for comparison. Vietnamese may also have similar adjective intensification (Thompson 1965, James Kirby personal communication). Thus, a cross-examination of the Sui data with other languages may yield further insights in the future.

3. The lexicon

The data entries provided here represent phonetic observation of the pronunciation of a native male Sui speaker in Ljaj Ku Tsong village, July 2004. The author collected 400 intensifiers from that speaker with the goal of providing the first detailed set of data representing a Sui speaker’s intensifier system. Prior work includes Wei (1999), who provides an initial description of about 20 Sui intensifiers. Two general Sui dictionaries (Burusphat, Wei, & Edmondson 2003 and Zeng & Yao 1996) also include intensifiers in their entries. However, such collections sometimes have a mix of dialect variants or historical variants, especially since intensifiers can vary in subtle ways from village to village. Therefore, the author set out to establish a single, detailed intensifier lexicon representing the synchronic lexicon of a single speaker.

Future phonological analysis of Sui may provide insight into transcription decisions for features such as the length of /ɑ:/ and the status of onset glides. The data set is divided into two main categories, the Alliterative Class and the Rhyming Class, and then further subdivided by morpho-phonological features. The small class of intensifiers with no base-reduplicant phonological resemblance is listed separately (the No-Pattern Class).

For all adjective intensifying expressions, the leftmost syllable is assumed to represent a monosyllabic adjective unless otherwise indicated. When an expression has more than two syllables, an underline is used to indicate which pair of syllables belong to the given category being analyzed in that section.

As noted above, a single base adjective often has more than one possible choice of intensifier. In such cases, each intensifier is listed in its appropriate category below. When available, further information is provided to show semantic/pragmatic contrasts between such different intensifier options for a single base adjective.

“Variant” refers to a minor alternation in pronunciation of a given entry that the consultant views as equivalent to his primary pronunciation.

3.1 The Alliterative Class

The intensifiers in the alliterative class are organized in the following groups (where “checked” refers to syllables with –p, -t, -k in syllable final position):

1. Checked base syllable, unchecked reduplicant syllable

2. Checked base, checked reduplicant

3. Unchecked base, checked reduplicant

4. Unchecked base, unchecked reduplicant:

4.1 Nasal-final base, nasal-final reduplicant

4.2 Nasal-final base, vowel/glide-final reduplicant

4.3 Vowel/glide-final base, nasal-final reduplicant

4.4 Vowel/glide-final base, vowel/glide-final reduplicant

In addition to the adjective intensifiers, a few alliterative nouns and other word classes are included for future analysis, e.g., ʔɲɛt⁷ʔɲɔ³‘swing’ (n.). Such words could share similar alliterative origins as the adjective intensifiers since Sui is otherwise largely monosyllabic.

3.1.1 Checked base, unchecked reduplicant

ʁɑ:t⁷ʁow¹	‘very nimble, agile’ (general use)
^mbɔ:k^7 mbow¹	‘very protruding, having many protrusions’ (general use)
ʔɲɛp⁷ʔɲeŋ³	‘very narrow’ (higher level of intensity than ʔɲɛp⁷ʔɲɛ:t⁷)
ʔɲɛt⁷ʔɲɔ³	‘a swing’ (n.)
ʔbok⁷ʔbow¹	‘very coarse’ (for small objects or tabletops)
ʔdɑŋ¹t^hɑk⁷t^hɛj¹	‘very bright’ (ʔdɑŋ¹‘bright’)
ɲ̥ɑk⁷ɲ̥ɛn¹	‘very coarse, rough’
ɲ̥ɛ:t⁷ɲ̥ɛj¹	‘sealed very tightly’ (higher intensity than ɲ̥ɛ:t⁷ɲ̥ow¹)
ɲ̥ɛ:t⁷ɲ̥ow¹	‘sealed very tightly’ (general use)
ɲ̥ɛt⁷ɲ̥ɛj¹	‘sealed very tightly’
ɲ̥it⁷ɲ̥ɔ³	‘very cold’ (weather)
ʔjɛt⁷ʔjɔ³	‘very long ago’
lɑp⁷leŋ⁵	‘very chatty, talkative’ (derogatory)
l^jɛk⁸l^juj²	‘very strong’ (general use)
l^jɛp⁷l^ju³	‘very remote, very faraway place’ (l^jɛp⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
l^jɛt⁷l^jɑw³	‘hypocritical, false display of affection’ (l^jɑw³ is not otherwise attested in this region, but it appears in other dialects as l^jɑw³ ‘proud’)
l^jɛt⁷l^jom¹	‘very proud’
l^jok⁷l^jɛn¹	‘very sweaty’
m̥ɑt⁷m̥ɛw¹	‘very dirty (derogatory, e.g., an animal or person’s face)
mɔk⁷mom²	‘very fierce, brave’ (can refer to actions, unlike mɔk⁷tɕɔk⁸)
mɔk⁷mow²	‘very fierce, brave, greedy’ (may be related to mow²in q^ha¹ mow^2 ‘greedy’)
pɑ:k⁸pɔ²	‘very white’ (often used to refer to skin)
pɑ:k⁸pəŋ⁴	‘very white’ (general use)
q^hop⁷q^hɛj⁵	‘very rugged’ (of mountain) (q^hop⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
q^hɑt⁷q^how¹	‘very bitter’
sʊt⁷som¹	‘very hot’
sət⁷ sɛw³	‘very pretty, cute’ (esp. little animals or children)
t^jʊt⁸ t^jɑw⁴	‘very wrinkled’ (e.g., clothes) (higher intensity than t^jʊt⁸ t^jɛt⁸)
tɕɑk⁷tɕom³	‘very stiff, inflexible’ (general use)
t^hɑk⁷ t^hɑw¹	‘very clear and bright’ (less common than t^hɑk⁷ tɛj¹) (t^hɑk⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
t^hɑk⁷ t^hɛj¹	‘very clear and bright’ (general use) (t^hɑk⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

3.1.2 Checked base, checked reduplicant

ʔɲɛp⁷ʔɲɛ:t⁷	‘very narrow’ (general use)
ʔɲɛp⁷ʔɲʊ:t⁷	‘very narrow’ (can be derogatory, higher level of intensity than ʔɲɛp⁷ʔɲɛ:t⁷)
ⁿd^jop⁷ⁿd^jɑ:p⁷	‘very crafty, sly’
tɕɑk⁷tɕop⁷	‘very still, inflexible’ (higher intensity than tɕɑk⁷tɕom³)
t^jʊt⁸ t^jɛt⁸	‘very wrinkled’ (e.g., clothes) (general use)
tsʊ:t⁷tsət⁷	‘very wrinkled or curly’ (esp. hair)

3.1.3. Unchecked base, checked reduplicant

ɣɔ²ɣɑ:t⁸	‘very empty’ (esp. empty-handed)
ⁿdəm^5 ndɛ:t⁷	‘very short’ (height) (general use)
ⁿdəm^5 ndʊ:t⁷	‘very short ‘(height)
ⁿd^jiŋ^5 ndʊ:t⁷	‘very dark’ (higher level of intensity than ⁿd^jiŋ^5 ndom¹)
ʔɔ³l^jɔ:k⁷	‘very clean/clear, wiped clean’
ʔɲɑm¹ʔɲɑt⁷	‘very fierce’
ʔbɑŋ¹ʔbɛ:p⁷	‘very thin’
ʔdɑ³ʔdɔ:t⁷	‘very hard’
ʔd^jɛj⁵ʔd^jɛ:k⁷	‘very shallow’ (general use)
ʔi:t⁷ʔɲɑ:t⁷	‘very cold’
ʔnəŋ⁵ʔnɔ:t⁷	‘very salty’
ʔnəm¹ʔnʊt⁷	‘very black/dark’(higher level of intensity than ʔnəm¹ʔnej¹)
ʔmɛj⁵ʔmʊ:t⁷	‘very stingy’ (general use)
ʔnɑ¹ʔnɔ:k⁷	‘very thick’ (general use)
ʔom⁵ʔɔ:t⁷	‘very humid, muggy weather’ (higher intensity than ʔom⁵ʔoj¹)
ɕəŋ²ɕɔ:t⁸	‘very straight or naïve/unintelligent’ (general use)
ɲ̥ow⁵ɲ̥ɛt⁷	‘very ugly’ (general use)
ɲɑw⁶ɲɛt⁸	‘very slender, thin’ (of a person) (ɲɑw⁶is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
ɲoŋ²ɲɛt⁸	‘very muddled, confused’
ɲɑn⁴ɲɔk⁸	‘very bored’
ŋ̥ɑw³ŋ̥ɔ:k⁷	‘very cold’
k^hi³ k^hop⁷	‘opened a little crack’ (e.g., a window) (consultant is unsure if this is an adjective+intensifier pair or simply a two-syllable word; k^hi³means to open just a crack; k^hop⁷is not otherwise attested)
kɔ¹ kɑ:t⁷	‘very sparse’
koŋ³kət⁷	‘very dry’ (esp. for skin)
koŋ³kop⁷	‘very dry’ (esp. for physical objects which once held water/moisture)
l^jok⁷l^jɑ:t⁷	‘very sweaty’
l^jow⁴ljɔ:k⁷	‘completely finished’
p^hɑ¹p^hok⁷	‘very gray’ (often referring to misty mountains)
p^hɑj³p^hɑ:k⁷	‘very crooked’ (p^hɑj³‘crooked’ appears to be a variant of ʔbɑj³‘crooked’)
p^how³p^hɔp⁷	‘very swollen’
pɑj⁶pɑk⁸	‘very crooked’
pi²pʊt⁸	‘very fat’ (only referring to people; has an intimate, ‘cute’ sense)
p^jɑŋ⁶p^jɑp⁸	‘very shriveled, withered’; (note: there is a two-syllable word, p^jɑp⁷p^jɛ¹ with similar meaning)
p^jeŋ²p^jɑt⁸	‘very flat’
pu¹pop⁷	‘very swollen, bulging’
qəm¹qɑ:t⁷	‘very bitter’ (often refers to vegetables)
qəm¹qʊ:t⁷	‘very bitter’ (general use)
qəm⁵qɑ:t⁷	‘very purple/dark’ (often refers to dark skin; higher intensity than qəm⁵qɛj¹)
qəm⁵qʊ:t⁷	‘very purple/dark’ (general use)
qɛn⁵qɔk⁷	‘very colorful’ (higher intensity than qɛn⁵qɛw¹)
qɑj²qək⁸	‘very crooked’ (tends to be derogatory; higher intensity than qɑj² t^jɑj¹)
qom² qək⁸	‘having many protrusions, not level’ (higher intensity than qom² qɛj²)
sɑ¹ sop⁷	‘very itchy/prickly’ (e.g., thorns) (higher intensity than sɑ¹ som¹)
s^jow³ s^jɛ:t⁷	‘very few’ (general use)
tɕɑw¹tɕɑk⁷	‘very curved’ (e.g., curly hair) (indicates greater curvature than tɕɑw¹ŋ^jɛw³)
tɕɛ⁵tɕop⁷	‘very old’ (of people) (general use)
tɕoŋ³ tɕop⁷	‘very skinny’ (higher intensity than tɕoŋ³ tɕɛn¹; also tɕoŋ³ tɕop⁷tends to be derogatory; tɕoŋ³ tɕɛn¹and tɕoŋ³ f^joŋ⁴are not so derogatory)
tɕ^hoŋ⁵ tɕ^hɑɑt⁷	‘very spicy’ (general use)
tɑj⁵tɔk⁷	‘multicolored’ (higher intensity, brighter colors than tɑj⁵tew¹)
t^jəm⁶ t^jət⁸	‘very anxious, agitated’ (status as an adjectival expression is unclear: t^jəm⁶ is a verb ‘to stomp one’s feet’)
t^jɛn² t^jɔk⁸	‘very full’ (of food)
t^ju⁵t^jɑ:t⁷	‘very tough, firm’
ts^hjɑŋ¹ ts^hjɛt⁷	‘very attractive, good-looking’ (general use)
xɔ³xɔ:t⁷	‘very poor’
xɑ:n⁴ xit⁸	‘very slender, tall (of a person) or a long road’
xʊt⁷ xɑt⁷	‘very skilled’
zɑw¹zɑk⁷	‘very numb, insensitive’

3.1.4 Unchecked base, unchecked reduplicant

3.1.4.1 Nasal-final base, nasal-final reduplicant

ⁿdəm^5 ndeŋ³	‘very short’ (height) (higher intensity than ⁿdəm^5 ndɛ:t⁷)
ⁿd^jɛn^3 nd^jɔn³	‘very short’ (length) (higher intensity than ⁿd^jɛn³ⁿd^jow⁵)
ⁿd^jiŋ^5 ndom¹	‘very dark’
ʔn^jəm⁵ʔn^jom³	‘very dark’
ŋ̥əm³ŋ̥eŋ³	‘very dizzy’
ŋ̥əm³ŋ̥ən⁵	‘very confused’
k^hiŋ³k^hən¹	‘very brown’ (general use)
koŋ³keŋ³	‘very dry’ (esp. for pools of water or cooking pots which once held water)
l^wɔn⁶lɑn⁶	‘very disorderly, messy’
l^jɑn⁵l^jɛn¹	‘very spicy’
l^jɛm⁵l^jɑ:ŋ¹	‘very talkative’
p^hɑ:ŋ³p^hom³	‘very moldy’ (higher intensity than p^hɑ:ŋ³p^how¹)
tɕoŋ³ tɕɛn¹	‘very skinny’ (general use)
tɕ^hɛn³ tɕ^heŋ¹	‘very steep’ (general use)
tɕ^hoŋ⁵ tɕ^hɑŋ¹	‘very spicy’ (less common than tɕ^hoŋ⁵ tɕ^hɑ:t⁷; higher intensity)
t^heŋ³ t^hom¹	‘puffed, bulging, not wrinkled’ (general use)
təm⁵ tɔm³	‘very dark’ (weather)
vɑŋ¹v^jɛn⁵	‘very tall’ (vɑŋ¹v^jɛn⁵does not include a sense of ‘strong’, unlike vɑ:ŋ¹tɕɑ:ŋ²)

3.1.4.2 Nasal-final base, vowel/glide-final reduplicant

ɣɑ:ŋ⁵ɣɑ:w¹	‘very clean/clear/cool’
ʁəm¹ʁoj¹	‘very muddled, confused’ (mental)
ʁoŋ⁵ʁɛw¹	‘very young’ (general use)
ʁoŋ⁵ʁɛw³	‘very young’ (higher intensity than ʁoŋ⁵ʁɛw¹)
^mb^jɑm^6 mb^jɛ¹	‘very damp/humid’ (tends to refer to food, skin, or clothes; more limited usage than ^mb^jɑm⁶tɕɑm⁶)
^mb^jiŋ^1 mb^jɛj¹	‘very expensive’
ⁿdɑ:ŋ^1 nd^wej¹	‘very fragrant’
ⁿd^jɛn^3 nd^jow⁵	‘very short’ (length) (general use)
ʔɣom⁵ʔɣi³	‘very swollen’
ʔɲɛn³ʔɲwej³	‘very tender’ (of objects or human heart)
ʔboŋ⁵ʔboj¹	‘very soggy, muddy’
ʔd^jɛn¹ʔd^joj¹	‘very smooth, shiny’
ʔd^jɛn¹ʔd^jɔ⁵	‘very itchy’ (ʔd^jɔ⁵also appears as a verb ‘pull’)
ʔd^jɛn³ʔd^joj³	‘very tender’ (a variant: ʔn^jɛn³ʔn^joj³)
ʔjəm¹ʔjɔ³	‘very deep’ (general use)
ʔjəm¹ʔjɔj¹	‘very deep’ (often refers to dangerous situations, e.g., deep, opaque water)
ʔnəm¹ʔnej¹	‘very black/dark’ (common, e.g., dark black clothes)
ʔnəm¹n̥ɛw¹	‘very black’ (esp. a portion of an object that is blackened)
ɕɛn⁶ɕ^wej²	‘very tiring’
ŋ̥əm³ŋ̥i³	‘very dizzy’ (described as being a reduced form of ŋ̥əm³ŋ̥eŋ³)
ŋ̥ɑ:n⁵ŋ̥ow¹	‘very cold’ (esp. for water)
ŋən⁴ŋɔ³	‘very stupid, stupefied’ (ŋən⁴is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
fɑ:n¹ foj¹	‘very gentle flavor or very relaxed, easy’; fɑ:n¹= ‘slow’)
fɑ:n¹ foj³	‘very gentle flavor’ (note that fɑ:n¹ foj³doesn’t have the secondary meaning ‘relaxed, easy’ found in fɑ:n¹ foj¹)
fin⁶ f^ju²	‘very steep’
fom¹ fi³	‘very still and quiet’ (fom¹is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
jɛn² joj²	‘very orderly’
k^hən¹k^hoj¹	‘very diligent’(k^hən¹is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
kɑ:n⁵kej¹	‘very white’ (complexion)
kiŋ³k^ju¹	‘very pretty’
kom⁵ki³	‘very weak/sickly’
liŋ³l^jow¹	‘very clear/dry’ (weather)
l^jɛŋ¹l^jɛj¹	‘all the same, all one kind’ (grammatically required to have another corresponding syllable l^jɛŋ¹at the beginning of the phrase: l^jɛŋ¹ ow⁴l^jɛŋ¹l^jɛj¹ ‘only rice, nothing else’ (ow⁴= ‘rice’)
l^jɛn⁶l^joj²	‘very sweet’
loŋ⁵lɑw¹	‘very loose’ (esp. referring to a loosely fitting object which distinguishes this intensifier from loŋ⁵lɛw³)
loŋ⁵lɛw³	‘very loose, spacious’ (e.g. very few people present during market day)
m̥ɑn³m̥uj³	‘pure yellow’
m̥ɑn³ m̥ow¹	‘deep yellow’ (most common)
ʔom⁵ʔoj¹	‘very humid, muggy weather’ (general use)
ɕəŋ²ɕɔj²	‘very stupid’ (only referring to intelligence, not straightness of objects, cf. ɕəŋ²ɕɔ:t⁸)
ɲ̥əŋ⁵ɲ̥ɔ³	‘very worried’
nuɛn⁶nɛj²	‘very tender’
p^hɑ:ŋ³p^hi³	‘very moldy’ (higher intensity than p^hɑ:ŋ³p^how¹)
p^hɑ:ŋ³p^how¹	‘very moldy’ (esp. for objects, e.g. clothes)
p^hjɔn⁵p^hjow¹	‘very barren, clear’
pən¹poj¹	‘very stupid’ (general use)
qɑ:ŋ⁵l^jɑ:ŋ⁵l^jɑ⁴	‘very simple, crude’ (e.g. a simple house) (the syllables are not otherwise attested)
q^hən¹q^hoj¹	‘very delicious’
qəm¹qe⁵	‘very bitter’ (higher intensity than qəm¹qʊ:t⁷)
qəm⁵qəŋ³	‘very purple/dark’
qəm⁵qɛj¹	‘very purple/dark’ (often refers to dark skin)
qɔn⁴ qow²	‘very short’ (higher intensity than qɔn⁴ ʔn^jɔn³)
qɛn¹qɛw¹	‘very agile/nimble’ (higher intensity than qɛn¹qoj¹)
qɛn¹qoj¹	‘very agile/nimble’ (general use)
qɛn⁵qɛw¹	‘very colorful’ (general use)
qom² qɛj²	‘having many protrusions, not level’ (general use)
som⁵ si⁵	‘very wet and very dirty’ (neither syllable is otherwise attested in any similar context; this expression most commonly serves as an intensifier of another word such as p^hjɑ:t⁷ ‘filled with blood’)
tɕ^hɛn³ tɕ^hu⁵	‘very steep’ (higher intensity than tɕɛn³ tɕ^heŋ¹)
tɕ^wɔn³ tɕɛw³	‘wound a lot (wire, string) or a very winding, curving (road)’
tɕɛn⁶tɕɛj²	‘very cheap’
t^heŋ³ t^hɑw¹	‘puffed, bulging, not wrinkled’
tom¹tɛj¹	‘very blunt, dull’ (does not refer to intelligence)
tom¹toj¹	‘very blunt, dull’ (does not refer to intelligence; higher intensity than tom¹tɛj¹)
ts^hjɑ:ŋ¹ ts^hjɑw³	‘very attractive, good-looking’
tsəŋ¹tsɛ⁵	‘very constricted, bloated’
tsən²ts^wej²	‘very sharp’
xɔŋ¹ xɑw¹	‘very hollow’
xəm¹ xu³	‘very early’
xən⁵ xɑ:ŋ¹	‘very strong/healthy’
zən¹z^woj¹	‘very heavy’ (lower intensity than zən¹ɲɑk⁷)

3.1.4.3 Vowel/glide-final base, nasal-final reduplicant

ɣɔ⁶ɣɑ:ŋ⁴	‘very leaky’ (general use)
^mbu^3 mbəŋ¹	‘very protruding’ (often refers to small objects, food)
ⁿdɑw^5 nd^jɑ:ŋ¹	‘to move around with rolling, rocking motion’ (adjective/verb status unclear)
ʔɣɑj³ʔɣəŋ²	‘very long’ (general use)
ʔb^jɑ⁵ʔb^jɛn³	‘very smooth’ (e.g., skin)
ʔd^jɛj⁵ʔd^jɛŋ³	‘very shallow’ (higher intensity than ʔd^jɛj⁵ʔd^jɛ:k⁷)
ɕɑ¹ɕɛn¹	‘very sharp’
ɕu¹ɕiŋ⁵	‘very green’
ɕu³ɕɑ:ŋ¹	‘very lively’ (uncommon)
ɲ̥ow⁵ɲ̥ɛŋ³	‘very ugly’ (humorous; less common than ɲ̥ow⁵ɲ̥ɛt⁷)
ɲ̥u¹ɲ̥iŋ³	‘very smelly’ (esp. of a child)
kɔ⁵ kiŋ¹	‘not respectable, not decent, not honest’ (most commonly occurs with məŋ⁴‘happy’ in məŋ⁴kɔ⁵ kiŋ¹‘extremely happy’; kɔ⁵is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
lɔ³ləŋ¹	‘very bald’ (hair or a barren mountain)
m̥ɛj⁵ m̥eŋ³	‘very new’
n^jɔ⁵n^jiŋ¹	‘very unrespectable’ (general use) (n^jiŋ¹also appears in n^jiŋ¹s^jiŋ¹)
n^jɔ⁵n^jiŋ³	‘very unrespectable’ (tends to refer to taboo behavior, higher intensity than n^jɔ⁵n^jiŋ¹)
p^hɑ¹p^həŋ¹	‘very gray/pale’ (esp. for a pudgy person with pale skin)
p^hjɛj⁵p^hjɛŋ³	‘very near’
pu¹pəŋ¹	‘very swollen’
qɑw⁵ qəŋ¹	‘very old’ (physical objects)
qu⁵ lu⁵ləŋ³	‘very round’ (tends to refer to smaller objects thanqu⁵ lu⁵su⁵ does) (qu⁵ lu⁵= ‘round’)
sɑ¹ som¹	‘very itchy/prickly’ (general use)
s^jow³ s^jɑ:ŋ¹	‘very few’ (higher intensity than s^jow³ s^jɛ:t⁷)
s^ju⁵ s^jɑŋ¹	‘very dry’
tɕɑw¹tɕeŋ³	‘very curved’ (higher intensity than tɕɑw¹tɕɑk⁷)
tɑj⁵tɔŋ³	‘multicolored’ (higher intensity than tɑj⁵tɛw¹but not as high as tɑj⁵tɔk⁷)
tɕɛ⁵tɕom³	‘very old’ (of people) (higher intensity than tɕɛ⁵tɕop⁷)
tik⁷mɔ⁵mɔn¹	‘very full’; higher intensity than tik^{7 n}dɛp⁸(tik⁷= ‘full’)
vɑ³vəŋ¹	‘very stupid’ (more derogatory than vɑ³voj³; slightly less intensity than vɑ³njɑ⁵)
zɑ³zeŋ³	‘very light’ (general use)

3.1.4.4 Vowel/glide-final base, vowel/glide-final reduplicant

ɣɔ⁶ɣi³	‘very leaky anddirty’
ɣɑi⁶ɣɛw²	‘very coarse, rough’
^mb^jɑ^3 mb^jow¹	‘very blurry’ (higher intensity than ^mb^jɑ³tɕɑ⁴)
^mbu^3 mboj¹	‘very protruding’ (higher intensity than ^mbu³ tɕu⁵)
^mbu^3 mbow¹	‘very protruding’ (higher intensity than ^mbu³ tɕu⁵)
^mbu³tɕ^hoj¹	‘very protruding’(tends to refer to large thick objects)
ⁿdɑw^5 nd^jow¹	‘to move around with rolling, rocking motion (adjective/verb status unclear)
ʔɲɑw¹ʔɲɔ³	‘to swing’ (v.); ʔɲɔ³ also appears in ʔɲɛt⁷ʔɲɔ³‘swing’ (n.)
ʔb^jɑ⁵ʔb^jɛj¹	‘very bored’
ʔb^jɑ⁵ʔb^juj³	‘very smooth’
ʔdɑj¹ʔdɛw⁵	‘very good’
ʔdi¹ʔd^ju⁵	‘very far’
ʔmɑ³ʔmɛw³	‘very soft’ (usually implies rotten)
ʔmɑ³ʔmi³	‘very soft’ (uncommon)
ʔmɑ³ʔm^wej³	‘very soft’ (most common)
ʔnɑ¹ʔnoj¹	‘very thick’ (implies both big and thick; higher degree of emphasis than ʔnɑ¹ʔnɔ:k⁷)
ʔne⁵ʔnoj¹	‘very tired’
ɕɑ¹ɕu⁵	‘very sharp’ (general use) (ɕu⁵also appears in the lexicon as ‘really’ (adv.), but the consultant views ɕɑ¹ɕu⁵as having “a true intensifier here”, not simply the adverb ‘really’)
ɲɑj⁴ɲ̥ɛw¹	‘very dirty/blackened’
fe¹ fi³	‘very late’ (general use)
fe³ foj¹	‘very tired’
k^hɑ⁵ k^hej¹	‘vigorously blazing (a fire) or very greasy (food)’
nɔ²nɔj²	‘stupid, silly’ (nɔ² also appears in tom¹nɔ² sɔ² ‘very stupid; nɔ²has been observed as an independent adjective)
p^hɑ¹p^hɛw³	‘very gray’ (esp. gray ash/powder spots on clothing) (variant: p^hɑ¹p^hɛw¹)
p^hɑ¹p^hoj¹	‘very gray’ (esp. gray ash/powder spots on clothing)
p^hjɑ:t⁷sɔm⁵si⁵	‘bleeding a lot’ (adjective/verb status unclear) (variant: sɔ⁵si⁵)
pi⁵li⁵ ljoj¹	‘very messy’ (cf. pi⁵li⁵ si⁵ which includes the sense ‘narrow’) (variants: p^hi⁵li⁵ l^jɛj¹and p^hi⁵li⁵ l^jɛj¹)
qɑw⁵ qe⁵	‘very old’ (physical objects) (higher intensity than qɑw⁵ qəŋ¹)
tɕɑw¹ŋ^jɛw³	‘curved, bent’ (not a very high degree of curvature)
tɑj⁵tew¹	‘multicolored’ (general use, but relatively shallow colors)
ti³ti⁴	‘very small’ (general use)
ti³t^ju⁴	‘very small’ (higher intensity than ti³t^ju⁵and ti³t^ju⁴)
ti³t^ju⁵	‘very small’ (general use)
tiw³ t^jɔ⁵	‘very dry’ (general use)
vɑ³voj³	‘very stupid’ (more subtle connotation than vɑ³vəŋ¹)
zɑ³zu¹	‘very light’ (also: flighty, frivolous attitude)
zɑw¹ze⁵	‘very numb, insensitive’ (less intensity than zɑw¹zɑk⁷)

3.2 The rhyming class

The intensifiers in the rhyming class are organized into six groups: intensifiers with labial onsets (Group1), dorsal onsets (Group 2), glottal onsets (Group 3), coronal onsets (Group 4). fully reduplicated pairs (Group 5). and three syllable expressions (Group 6). Within those groups, intensifiers are further differentiated as sets of intensifiers sharing similar onset feature changes. Finally, within some sets, intensifiers are differentiated into subsets of similar feature changes.

In a few cases where a pair of intensifiers rhyme with each other but do not rhyme with the base adjective, then the rhyming pair being analyzed in that section is underlined, e.g., tom¹‘dull’ → tom¹ŋɔ² sɔ²‘very dull’.

The third syllables of three-syllable rhyming expressions (e.g., m̥ow¹‘rash (adj.)’ → m̥ow¹low¹‘very rash’ → m̥ow¹low¹tow²‘extremely rash’) are analyzed as a separate set. The two rhyming syllables being analyzed in that section are underlined, e.g., m̥ow¹low¹tow². In addition, for a few intensifiers where speakers report that the rhyming syllables cannot be separated, e.g., p^jɑj⁵ l^jɑj⁵ s^jɑj⁵‘extremely messy’; *p^jɑj⁵ l^jɑj⁵, then the whole expression is listed along with the more typical two-syllable expressions with the first two syllables underlined to show they are being analyzed in that section, e.g., p^jɑj⁵ l^jɑj⁵ s^jɑj⁵.

Group 1 Labial base onsets

Set 1.1: Voiced labial becomes a voiceless coronal obstruent

Feature changes in this set:

[+voice] → [-voice]

[labial] →[coronal]

Variation in Onset Place: 7 cases of [tɕ], 1 case of [tj], 1 case of [tɕ^h], 1 case of [t]

^mbɔ:k⁷tɕɔ:k⁸	‘very protruding, having many protrusions’
^mb^jɑ³tɕɑ⁴	‘very blurry’ (most common)
^mb^jɑm⁶tɕɑm⁶	‘very damp/humid’ (general use)
^mb^jɑw³tɕɑw⁴	‘very muddled’
^mbu³ tɕ^hu⁵	‘very protruding, having many protrusions’
ʔbɑj³t^jɑj⁴	‘very crooked’
ʔbok⁷tɕ^hok⁸	‘very coarse’ (used for large objects such as rocks)
ʔmɛj⁵tɛj¹	‘very stingy/selfish’
mət⁷tɕət⁸	‘very tight’
mɔk⁷tɕɔk⁸	‘very fierce, brave’
vɑ:ŋ¹tɕɑ:ŋ²	‘very tall’

Set 1.2: Voiceless labial becomes a voiced coronal sonorant

Feature changes in this set:

[-voice]→[+voice]

[labial]→[coronal]

[-lat]→[+lat] (exception: pən¹ʔnən¹)

[-son]→[+son] (exceptions: m̥ow¹low¹)

pən¹ʔnən¹	‘very stupid’
pi² p^ju¹ l^ju¹	‘very fat’ (pi² ‘fat’) (p^ju¹is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
pi⁵ li⁵	‘messy’ (e.g. a messy desktop) (pi⁵is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
p^jɑj⁵ l^jɑj⁵ s^jɑj⁵	‘very messy’ (e.g. messy writing or messy soup, differs from pi⁵ li⁵si⁵or p^jɑ:n⁶l^jɑ:n⁶ɲ̥ɑ:n⁶; p^jɑj⁵is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
p^jɑ:n⁶l^jɑ:n⁶ɲ̥ɑ:n⁶	‘very messy’ (e.g. a messed up pile of books) (p^jɑ:n⁶is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
p^jɛ:k⁷ l^jɛ:k⁷	‘very dirty’
p^jeŋ² l^jeŋ²	‘very flat’ (general use)
m̥ow¹low¹	‘very crude’ (derogatory)
fɑ:ŋ³ l^jɑ:ŋ²	‘very wide’
fɑ:n¹ l^jɑ:n²	‘very slow or gentle flavor’ (e.g. alcohol) (Note that fɑ:n¹ l^jɑ:n²doesn’t have the secondary meaning ‘relaxed, easy’ found in fɑ:n¹ foj¹)

Unclassified:

p^hɑj³tɑj⁴	‘very crooked’ (the base may be in free variation with ʔbɑj³)
fɑ:t⁸ ɣɑ:t⁸	‘very disheveled, weary’ (fɑ:t⁸is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

Group 2. Dorsal base onsets

Set 2.1: Voiced dorsal becomes a voiceless coronal

Feature changes in this set:

[dorsal]→[coronal]

Other feature changes are listed below by subset.

Subset 2.1.1:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+cont]→[-cont]

ʁɑ:t⁷tɕɑ:t⁸

‘very agile’, also ‘hurried, hasty’

Subset 2.1.2:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[-nasal]→[+nasal]

ʔɣɑj³ɲ̥ɑj¹

‘very long’

Subset 2.1.3:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+nasal]→[-nasal]

ŋɑ:t⁷tɑ:t⁷	‘very still and quiet’ (ŋɑ:t⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
ŋət⁸sət⁸	‘very stupid’
tom¹ŋɔ² sɔ²	‘very dull’ (of a knife), ‘unintelligent’ (of a person) (tom¹‘dull’)

Set 2.2: Voiceless dorsal becomes a voiced coronal

Feature change in this set: [dorsal]→[coronal]. Other feature changes are listed below by subset.

Subset 2.2.1:

[-voice]→[+voice]

[-cont]→[+cont]

[-lat]→[+lat]

[-son]→[+son]

In this subset, the bases are not attested as monosyllabic adjectives.

ʔdɑ³qəŋ⁵ləŋ⁵səŋ⁵	‘very hard’ (ʔdɑ³‘hard’)
ʔdɑ³qət⁸lət⁸	‘very hard’
ʔdɑ³qe⁵le⁵se⁵	‘very hard’
məŋ⁴kɔ⁵l^jɔ⁵l^jɔm¹	‘very happy’ (məŋ⁴‘happy’)
qɔ⁶ lɔ⁶sɔ⁶	‘very bald’
qɔm⁶ lɔm⁶	‘round’
qɑŋ⁵l^jɑŋ⁵l^jɑ⁴	‘very simple, crude’ (e.g., a simple house)
qɑk⁷lɑk⁷	‘mysterious’
qɛw³lɛw³	‘clever, mysterious’
qu⁵ lu⁵	‘round’ (for ball-like objects)
tɕoŋ³ k^wɛm³l^jɛm³	‘very skinny’; free variant: tɕoŋ³ kwɑm³ljɑm³

Subset 2.2.2:

[-voice]→[+voice]

[-cont]→[+cont]

[-nasal]→[+nasal]

[-son]→[+son]

ʔmɑ³ k^wɛt⁸ n^jɛt⁸	‘very soft’ (ʔmɑ³ ‘soft’) (k^wɛt⁸ is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
xət⁷ k^wɑt⁸ nɑt⁸	‘very lazy’ (ʔmɑ³ ‘soft’) (k^wɑt⁸ is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
qɔn⁴ ʔn^jɔn³	‘very short’ (general use)
xom³ ʔnom⁵	‘very sour’ (higher intensity than xom³ p^jɑ:t⁷)

Subset 2.2.3:

[-lat]→[+lat]

[-son]→[+son]

xɔ³l^jɔ⁴	‘very poor’
xop⁷ l^jop⁸	‘very dizzy with success’ (xop⁸is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

Subset 2.2.4:

pi²kɑ⁵ⁿd^jɑ⁵ⁿd^jom¹

‘very fat’ (pi² ‘fat’) (kɑ⁵is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

Set 2.3: Voiceless dorsal becomes a voiceless coronal obstruent

Feature changes are listed by subset below.

Subset 2.3.1:

[+cont]→[-cont]

xɑ:n³ t^jɑ:n²	‘very red’ (can be derogatory)
xək⁷ tɕək⁸	‘very crowded, constricted’ (general use)
xom³ tom⁴	‘very sour’ (higher intensity than xom³ pjɑ:t⁷)
xom³ tom⁵ʔnom⁵som⁵	‘very sour’ (higher intensity than xom³ʔnom⁵)

Subset 2.3.2:

[dorsal]→[coronal]

[-cont]→[+cont]

[-strid]→[+strid]

In this subset, the bases are not attested as monosyllabic adjectives.

kɔ⁵ s^jɔ⁵	‘to be stunned, stupefied’
kəŋ⁵ səŋ⁵	‘can’t help doing something, have no alternative’

Subset 2.3.3:

[dorsal]→[coronal]

[+asp]→[-asp]

k^hiŋ³ tiŋ⁴

‘very brown’

Subset 2.3.4

[dorsal]→[coronal]

[+bk]→[-bk]

qɑj² t^jɑj¹

‘very crooked’ (tends to be derogatory)

Set 2.4: Voiceless velar fricative becomes a voiceless uvular stop

Feature changes in this set:

[dorsal]→[uvular]

[+cont]→[-cont]

xɔŋ¹ qɔŋ²	‘very hollow’ (Another version,xɔŋ¹tɕɔŋ², is observed in the Shuilong region)
xok⁷ qok⁸	‘very hurriedly, not carefully’ (adverbial)

Set 2.5: Voiceless velar stop becomes a voiced velar fricative

Feature changes in this set:

[-cont]→[+cont]

[+asp]→[-asp]

[-voice]→[+voice]

k^hoj³ ɣoj⁴

‘very hollowed, sunken (object) or greedy’

Set 2.6: Tone change only

koŋ²koŋ⁶koŋ³

‘very much’ (only used when speaking to a child in a silly manner)

Group 3. Glottal base onsets

Feature change: [glottal]→[coronal]

ʔom³tom⁴	‘very hunchbacked’
ʔom⁵tom²	‘very humid’ (weather)

Group 4. Coronal base onsets

Set 4.1: Voiceless coronal obstruent becomes coronal nasal (with same [back] feature)

Feature changes in this set:

[-son]→[+son]

[-nasal]→[+nasal]

[-voice]→[+voice]

pu¹təŋ¹ʔnəŋ¹ (also: pu¹ təŋ¹)	‘very swollen’ (e.g. an inflated basketball) (təŋ¹is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
t^jəŋ¹ɲəŋ¹	‘very long’ (time)
t^jəŋ⁵ɲəŋ⁵	‘very full’ (of food)
t^jɑk⁷ɲɑk⁷	‘very broken’
tom¹ʔnom¹	‘very dull’ (of a knife), also ‘dumb’ (of a person)
tow⁵ ʔnow⁵	‘very dull, slow’ (of ability to think)
xom³tom⁵ʔnom⁵som⁵	‘very sour’ (higher intensity than xom³ʔnom⁵) (ʔnom⁵is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
ɕəŋ²tɕoj²ɲoj²	‘very stupid’ (ɕəŋ²‘stupid’) (tɕoj²is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
pi² t^jəŋ² ɲəŋ²	‘very fat’ (pi²‘far’) (t^jəŋ²is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

The following intensifying expressions for ⁿdəm⁵ ‘short’ (height) bear close phonological resemblance. The consultant reports all four expressions, but it is unclear whether they should be classified as individual entries or “free variants” of a single entry. In addition, except for tʊ:t⁷, the bases are not attested as monosyllabic adjectives.

ⁿdəm⁵ tɛ:t⁷nɛ:t⁷	‘very short’ (height) (ⁿdəm⁵ ‘short’ (height))
ⁿdəm⁵ te²ne²	‘very short’ (height) (ⁿdəm⁵ ‘short’ (height))
ⁿd^jɛn³ tɔ:t⁷nɔ:t⁷	‘very short’ (height) (ⁿdəm⁵ ‘short’ (height))
ⁿdəm⁵ tʊ:t⁷nʊ:t⁷	‘very short’ (height) (ⁿdəm⁵ ‘short’ (height); also the consultant reports that tʊ:t⁷ can also function as an independent word meaning ‘short’)

Set 4.2: Voiceless coronal obstruent becomes a lateral

Feature changes in this set listed below by subset.

Subset 4.2.1:

Feature changes :

[-voice]→[+voice]

[-lat]→[+lat]

[-cont]→[+cont]

ɕəŋ²tɛt⁸lɛt⁸	‘very straight’ (can only refer to objects) (tɛt⁸is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
tɕɑ:t⁷ l^jɑ:t⁷s^jɑ:t⁷	‘very disorderly, messy’ (e.g., a messy dinner table) (tɕɑ:t⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
xɑ:n³ t^jɑ:n² l^jɑ:n²	‘extremely red’ (higher intensity than xɑ:n³ t^jɑ:n²) (xɑ:n³‘red’)

Subset 4.2.2:

Feature changes:

[-voice]→[+voice]

[+strid]→[-strid]

sən⁴sop⁷ l^jop⁸

‘very flustered, hurried’ (sən⁴‘flustered, hurried’) (sop⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

Set 4.3: Nasal or lateral coronal becomes a voiceless coronal obstruent (or voiceless nasal)

Feature changes listed by subset below.

Subset 4.3.1:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+nasal]→[-nasal]

[-strid]→[+strid]

[+son]→[-son]

The bases in this set are not attested as monosyllabic adjectives.

ⁿdəm⁵ ne²se²	‘very short (height)’ (ⁿdəm⁵ ‘short (height)’)
n^jiŋ¹s^jiŋ¹	‘very filthy, unrespectable’
n^jiŋ⁵s^jiŋ⁵	‘very filthy, unrespectable’
n^jɔ⁵ɕɔ⁵	‘very filthy, unrespectable’
ɲoj²ɕoj²	‘very stupid’

Subset 4.3.2:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+lat]→[-lat]

[-strid]→[+strid]

[+son]→[-son]

lət⁸sət⁸

‘very blunt, stubborn’

Subset 4.3.3:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+lat]→[-lat]

[+son]→[-son]

[+cont]→[-cont]

l^wɔn⁴tɕɔn²	‘very blunt, dull’ (e.g. a knife)
l^wɔn⁶ t^wɔn⁶	‘very disorderly, messy’
ləŋ⁵təŋ⁴	‘very careless’
ləŋ⁵tɕəŋ⁴	‘very straight’
lɑp⁷tɑp⁸	‘very chatty, talkative’ (derogatory)

Subset 4.3.4:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+lat]→[-lat]

[+son]→[-son]

[-nasal]→[+nasal]

[+cont]→[-cont]

l^jɑ:n⁶ɲ̥ɑ:n⁶

‘very messy’ (e.g. a pile of books) (l^jɑ:n⁶is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

Set 4.4 Voiced coronal obstruent onsets becomes another coronal obstruent

Subset 4.4.1:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[-strid]→[+strid]

[-cont]→[+cont]

ʔdɛ:t⁷sɛ:t⁷

‘very quiet’

Subset 4.4.2:

[-cont]→[+cont]

[-lat]→[+lat]

ʔdɛ:t⁷lɛ:t⁷sɛ:t⁷

‘very quiet’ (higher intensity than ʔdɛ:t⁷sɛ:t⁷)

Set 4.5: Coronal obstruent becomes an obstruent with different place of articulation

Feature changes listed by subset below.

Subset 4.5.1:

[-cont]→[+cont]

[coronal]→[dorsal]

tɕəm⁴ ɣəm⁴	‘very fierce’
ɕəŋ²t^hu³ɣu⁴	‘very stupid’ (ɕəŋ²‘stupid’) (t^hu³is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

Subset 4.5.2:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[coronal]→[dorsal, +labial]

ʔdɑ:ŋ¹k^wɑ:ŋ²

‘very bright’, esp. when light suddenly emerges (could be related Chinese guang ‘light; ray; bright’, but the Sui consultant views k^wɑ:ŋ²as a purely Sui intensifier and it is not otherwise attested in Sui. However, a similar word k^wɑ:ŋ¹exists which means ‘bright’.)

Subset 4.5.3:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[coronal]→[dorsal]

[-nasal]→[+nasal]

tom¹tɔ²ŋɔ² sɔ²

‘very dull’ (of a knife), ‘very dumb’ (of a person) (tom¹‘dull’) (tɔ²is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)

Subset 4.5.4:

[-cont]→[+cont]

[coronal]→[labial]

tɕoŋ³ f^joŋ⁴	‘very skinny’ (higher intensity than tɕoŋ³ tɕɛn¹)
tiw³fiw⁴	‘very dried up’ (higher intensity than tiw³ t^jɔ⁵)

Subset 4.5.5:

[-cont]→[+cont]

[coronal]→[labial]

[+nasal]→[-nasal]

ʔnəm¹fəm²

‘very black/dark’

Subset 4.5.6:

[-cont]→[+cont]

[coronal]→[labial]

[-voice]→[+voice]

tsɛ:k⁷vɛ:k⁷

‘very bright’

Subset 4.5.7:

[-cont]→[+cont]

[coronal]→[labial]

ʔd^jɑ:n³v^jɑ:n³

‘very shiny/glittering’

Set 4.6: Tone change only

ʔdɑ³ʔdɔ:t⁷ʔdɔ:t⁸	‘very hard’ (ʔdɔ:t⁷is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
ʔnɑ³ʔnɑ⁴	‘very far forward, frontmost’
ti³ti⁴	‘very small’ (same meaning as ti³t^ju⁴)
lən²lən⁶lən³	‘farthest behind’ (only used when speaking to a child in a silly manner)

Group 5. Fully reduplicated pairs

The expressions in this set, primarily ABB full reduplication pairs, are considered distinct from the rhyming/alliterative intensifiers since (a) these ABB expressions are usually clearly onomatopoeic, unlike the rhyming/alliterative intensifiers and (b) these expressions usually occur as verb modifiers, unlike rhyming/alliterative intensifiers which apparently cannot modify verbs. (c) Further, note that the fully reduplicated pairs attach to phonologically distinct syllables (e.g., ku¹‘to laugh’ → ku¹ɕi⁵ɕi⁵‘to laugh quietly’). Although rhyming/alliterative intensifiers occasionally attach to a phonologically distinct adjective (e.g., ʔdɑ³‘hard’ →ʔdɑ³qət⁸lət⁸‘very hard’), such examples are uncommon among the rhyming/alliterative type. Thus, the fully reduplicated set shown here appears to represent a separate process.

ʔɑw¹lɔ⁵xæ̃:t⁸xæ̃:t⁸	‘sound of breathing’ (ʔɑw¹lɔ⁵‘to inhale’)
ʔɲɛ³ɲɑ²ɲɑ²	‘sound of crying’ (ʔɲɛ³‘cry’)
^mb^jɑw^3 mb^jɑw³	‘snow falling in sheets’ (verb modifier)
ⁿdɑ¹ɣɑ:k⁷ɣɑ:k⁷	‘many tears falling’ (ⁿdɑ¹‘eye’)
jɑ:p⁷jɑ:p⁷	‘talks a lot, talkative’ (onomatopoeic; most commonly modifies verbs)
kiw¹k^whit⁷k^whit⁷	‘sound of whistling’ (kiw¹‘whistle’)
ku¹ɕi⁵ɕi⁵	‘to laugh quietly’(ku¹‘laugh’)
ku¹xɑ²xɑ²	‘to laugh loudly’(ku¹‘laugh’) (xɑ̃²xɑ̃² also has the sense ‘disrespectful’)
k^wɑ:ŋ¹lɑp⁷lɑp⁷	‘shining very brightly, strong light’ (k^wɑ:ŋ¹ ‘shining, bright’) (ʔdɑ:ŋ¹‘shining, bright’) also: k^wɑ:ŋ¹lip⁷lip⁷andʔdɑ:ŋ¹lip⁷lip⁷
p^hjɑ:t⁷vɔ²vɔ²	‘to bleed a lot or filled with blood’(p^hɑ:t⁷ ‘blood, bleed’)
p^hjɑ:t⁷l^jiŋ¹l^jiŋ¹	‘to bleed a lot or filled with blood’(p^hɑ:t⁷ ‘blood, bleed’)
sʊt⁷ⁿdɑ:t^{7 n}dɑ:t⁷	‘very scalding, scald a lot’ (higher intensity than sʊt⁷som¹) (sʊt⁷ ‘to scald, scalding, hot’)
tik⁷meŋ⁵ meŋ⁵	‘very full’(tik⁷‘full’) (meŋ⁵may be related to Chinese man ‘full’)
tiw⁴vɑ:m⁶vɑ:m⁶	‘sound of stomping feet’ (tiw⁴‘to stomp’)
tow⁶ju¹ju¹	‘very sharp’ (e.g., of a knife) (tow⁶‘sharp’)

Group 6. Three-syllable rhyming expressions

In this section, the second and third syllable of three-syllable expressions are analyzed as base+reduplicant pairs. Neither of the syllables are attested as monosyllabic adjectives.

Set 6.1: Coronal lateral to voiceless coronal nasal

Features changed in this set:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+lat]→[-lat]

[+cont]→[-cont]

[-nasal]→[+nasal]

p^jɑ:n⁶l^jɑ:n⁶ɲ̥ɑ:n⁶

‘extremely messy’ (e.g. a disorderly pile of books)

Set 6.2: Coronal lateral to voiceless coronal stop

Features changed in this set:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+lat]→[-lat]

[+cont]→[-cont]

[+son]→[-son]

m̥ow¹low¹tow²	‘extremely crude/rash’ (m̥ow¹‘crude/rash’)
qom³lom²tom²	‘sound of thunder’ (onomatopoeia) (included here for comparison)
qu⁵ lu⁵tu⁴	‘very round’ (slightly different usage than qu⁵ lu⁵su⁵; e.g. a person who has rolled into a ball; higher intensity than qu⁵ lu⁵)

Set 6.3: Coronal lateral to voiceless coronal fricative

Features changed:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[+lat]→[-lat]

[-strid]→[+strid]

[+son]→[-son]

ʔdɑ³qəŋ⁵ləŋ⁵səŋ⁵	‘extremely hard’ (ʔdɑ³‘hard’)
ʔdɑ³qət⁸lət⁸sət⁸	‘extremely hard’ (ʔdɑ³‘hard’)
ʔdɑ³qe⁵le⁵se⁵	‘extremely hard’ (ʔdɑ³‘hard’)
ʔdɛ:t⁷lɛ:t⁷sɛ:t⁷	‘extremely quiet’ (ʔdɛt⁷‘quiet’)
ɕəŋ²tɛt⁸lɛt⁸sɛt⁸	‘extremely stupid’ (ɕəŋ²‘stupid’)
m̥ow¹low¹sow¹	‘extremely crude/rash’ (m̥ow¹‘crude/rash’)
pi² p^ju¹l^ju¹ s^ju¹	‘extremely fat’ (pi²‘fat’)
pi⁵ li⁵ si⁵	‘extremely messy’, also includes the meaning ‘narrow’, e.g., a messy, narrow room (pi⁵ li⁵‘messy’)
p^jɑj⁵ l^jɑj⁵ s^jɑj⁵	‘extremely messy’, e.g., messy writing or messy soup, not the same meaning as pi⁵ li⁵si⁵or p^jɑ:n⁶l^jɑ:n⁶s^jɑ:n⁶
p^jɑ:n⁶l^jɑ:n⁶s^jɑ:n⁶	‘extremely messy’ (e.g. a disorderly pile of books)
p^jɛ:k⁷ l^jɛ:k⁷ s^jɛ:k⁷	‘extremely dirty’ (p^jɛ:k⁷‘dirty’)
p^jeŋ² l^jeŋ²s^jeŋ²	‘extremely flat’ (p^jeŋ²‘flat’)
qɔ⁶ lɔ⁶sɔ⁶	‘extremely bald’
qɔm⁶ lɔm⁶sɔm⁶	‘extremely round’ (qɔm⁶ lɔm⁶‘round’)
qɑk⁷lɑk⁷sɑk⁷	^‘extremely mysterious’ (qɑk⁷ lɑk⁷‘mysterious’)
qok⁸ lok⁸sok⁸	‘very round-wheel-like’ (qok⁸ lok⁸‘wheel’(n.))
qu⁵ lu⁵su⁵	‘very round’ (qu⁵ lu⁵‘round’ (not wheels))
tɕɑ:t⁷ l^jɑ:t⁷s^jɑ:t⁷	^‘very disorderly’
tɕoŋ³ k^wɛm³l^jɛm³ s^jɛm³	‘extremely skinny’ (tɕoŋ³ ‘skinny’)
xɑ:n³ t^jɑ:n²l^jɑ:n²s^jɑ:n²	‘extremely red’ (xɑ:n³ ‘red’)

Set 6.4: Coronal nasal to voiceless coronal fricative

Subset 6.4.1:

Features changed in the onset:

[+nasal]→[-nasal]

[+son]→[-son]

[+voice]→[-voice]

[-strid]→[+strid]

[-cont]→[+cont]

ⁿdəm⁵ tɛ:t⁷nɛ:t⁷sɛ:t⁷	‘extremely short (stature)’ (ⁿdəm⁵‘short’ (height))
ⁿdəm⁵ tʊ:t⁷nʊ:t⁷sʊ:t⁷	‘extremely short (stature)’ (ⁿdəm⁵‘short’(height); note similarity with ⁿdəm⁵ tɛ:t⁷nɛ:t⁷sɛ:t⁷)
ⁿdəm⁵ te²ne²se²	‘extremely short (stature)’ (ⁿdəm⁵‘short’ (height))
ⁿd^jɛn³ tɔ:t⁷nɔ:t⁷sɔ:t⁷	‘extremely short (length)’ (ⁿd^jɛn³‘short’ (length))
ʔmɑ³k^wɛt⁸n^jɛt⁸s^jɛt⁸	‘extremely soft’ (ʔmɑ³‘soft’)
pi² t^jəŋ²ɲəŋ² sjəŋ²	‘extremely fat’ (pi²‘fat’)
pu¹ təŋ¹ʔnəŋ¹ səŋ¹	‘extremely swollen’ (pu¹‘swollen’)
t^jəŋ¹ɲəŋ¹s^jəŋ¹	‘extremely long time’ (t^jəŋ¹‘long time’)
t^jəŋ⁵ɲəŋ⁵s^jəŋ⁵	‘extremely full’ (t^jəŋ⁵ ‘full’ (of food))
t^jɑk⁷ɲɑk⁷s^jɑk⁷	‘extremely broken’ (t^jɑk⁷ ‘broken’)
tom¹ʔnom¹ som¹	‘extremely dull’ (tom¹ ‘dull’)
tom¹tɔ²ŋɔ² sɔ²	‘extremely dull’ (tom¹ ‘dull’)
tow⁵ ʔnow⁵sow⁵	‘extremely slow (intelligence)’ (tow⁵ ‘slow in intelligence’)
xom³ tom⁵ʔnom⁵som⁵	‘extremely sour’ (xom³ ‘sour’)
ɕəŋ²tɕoj²ɲoj²ɕoj²	‘extremely stupid’ (ɕəŋ²‘stupid’)
pi² tɛt⁷nɛt⁷sɛt⁷	‘extremely fat’ (pi²‘fat’)
xət⁷ k^wɑt⁸nɑt⁸sɑt⁸	‘extremely lazy’ (xət⁷ ‘lazy’)

Subset 6.4.2:

Features changed in the onset:

[+nasal]→[-nasal]

[+son]→[-son]

[-strid]→[+strid]

[-cont]→[+cont]

ʔɣɑj³ɲ̥ɑj¹s^jɑj¹

‘extremely long (length)’ (ʔɣɑj³‘long’ (length))

Set 6.5: Voiced labial fricative to voiceless coronal fricative

Features changed in this set:

[+voice]→[-voice]

[labial]→[coronal]

tsɛ:k⁷vɛ:k⁷ sɛ:k⁷	‘extremely bright’ (light)
ʔd^jɑ:n³v^jɑ:n³s^jɑ:n³	‘extremely shiny, glittery’ (ʔd^jɑ:n³‘shiny, glittery’)

3.3 The No-Pattern Class

Intensifiers in this class show no apparent phonological connection between base and reduplicant.

ʁəm^1 nd^jiŋ¹	‘very muddled’ (referring to liquids, includes the sense ‘dirty’, cf., ʁəm¹ʁoj¹)
qɑj²pət⁸	‘very crooked’ (for physical objects)
qɑj²ɲɔ²	‘very crooked’ (esp. for describing a child or little animal in a humorous sense, e.g. a child walking in an unstable manner)
qɑj²t^jək⁸	‘very crooked’
ɲ̥u¹ʔnɑk⁷	‘very smelly’ (general use)
pi²ɲəŋ²	‘very fat’ (for both farm animals and people)
tɕɛn³ɲ̥ɛt⁷	‘very tight’ (note that this intensifier is distinguished by vowel length from ɲ̥ɛ:t⁷in ɲ̥ɛ:t⁷ɲ̥ow¹)
tik^7 ndɛp⁸	‘very full’ (general use)
t^ju³ ɲɔk⁷	‘very sticky’ (most common; t^ju³ɲɑw³‘very sticky’ occurs rarely and indicates higher intensity)
xɑ:n³ səŋ¹	‘very red’ (general use, not derogatory; cf. xɑ:n³ t^jɑ:n²)
xom³ p^jɑ:t⁷	‘very sour’ (general use)
zən¹ɲɑk⁷	‘very heavy’ (general use)
ʔɣɑj³ɲ̥ɔ³	‘very long’ (e.g., long rope or bamboo; more limited use than ʔɣɑj³ʔɣəŋ²)
ʔɣɑk⁷ʔbət⁷	‘very wet’ (most common)
ʔɣɑk⁷ʔdɑ:t⁷	‘very wet’
ⁿdu³ɣoŋ²	‘very hot’ (temperature)
l^jɛk⁸k^həŋ³	‘very strong/healthy’ (esp. referring to a child’s health)
pɑ:k⁸l^jəŋ²	‘very white’ (e.g. a line of white clouds)
pu¹ɲɔ¹	‘very swollen’ (esp. swelling due to an insect bite)
xək⁷ tɕɛ⁵	‘very crowded, constricted’ (higher intensity than xək⁷ tɕək⁸)
k^hiŋ^3 ndi²	‘very brown’ (often humorous usage)
ʔdɑ:ŋ¹t^heŋ³	‘very bright’ (e.g., a bright sunrise)
qom² f^ju²	‘having many protrusions, not level’ (has a gentler connotation than qom² qɛj²and qom² qək⁸)
ɕi⁵ ʔɲej¹	‘very dense and fine’ (ɕi⁵is not attested as a monosyllabic adjective)
ɲ̥u^1 nd^jɛn¹	‘very smelly’ (general use)

References

Burusphat, Somsonge, Xuechun Wei, and Jerold A. Edmondson. 2003. Sui (Shui)

Chinese-Thai Dictionary, Mahidol University, Bangkok (Sui, Chinese, and English entries by Wei and Edmondson).

Chao, Y.R. 1930. A System of Tone Letters. La Maitre phonetique 45/24-27.

Edmondson, Jerold A., John H. Esling, Jimmy G. Harris, and James Wei. 2004. A Phonetic Study of the Sui Consonants and Tones. Mon-Khmer Studies 34/47-66.

Edmondson, Jerold A. and David B. Solnit (eds.) 1988. Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai. Dallas, TX: SIL.

He, Jiquan, Pan Chaofeng, and Liu Zhiyang. 1992. Shuizu minsu tanyou (Exploring folk customs of the Sui people). Chengdu, China: Sichuan Minorities Publishing.

Kennard, Catherine Hicks. 2004. Copy But Don’t Repeat: the Conflict of Dissimilation and Reduplication in the Tawala Durative. Phonology 21/3.303-323. doi:10.1017/s0952675704000296

Li, Fang-Kuei. 1948. The Distribution of Initials and Tones in the Sui Language. Language 24/2.160-167. doi:10.2307/409796

Luo, Shiwu. 1992. Sandu Shuizu Zizhixian Zhi [Sandu Sui Autonomous County Report]. Guizhou, China: Guizhou People’s Publishing.

McCarthy, John and Alan Prince. 1994. The Emergence of the Unmarked: Optimality in Prosodic Morphology. NELS 24, Proceedings of the 24th Conference of the Northeast Linguistics Society. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 333-379.

Prince, Alan and Paul Smolensky. 1993. Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar, Ms., Rutgers University & University of Colorado, Boulder. Published 2004, Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts and Oxford.

Shuiyu Diaocha Baogao (Report on Investigations of the Sui Language). 1956. Ms.

Stanford, James N. 2007. Sui adjective reduplication as poetic morpho-phonology. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 16/2.87-111. doi:10.1007/s10831-007-9008-2

Thompson, Laurence C. 1965. A Vietnamese Grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Wei, Xuechun. 1999. Shuiyu Xingrongci Houzhui Yanjiu [Research of Sui language adjective suffixes]. In Shuijiaxue Yanjiu Vol. 3. Guizhou, China: Guizhou Province Sui Association, 221-225.

Yip, Moira. 1995a. Identity Avoidance in Phonology and Morphology. Ms, University of California, Irvine.

Yip, Moira. 1995b. Repetition and its Avoidance: the Case of Javanese. In K. Suzuki and D. Elzinga (eds.), Proceedings of South Western Optimality Theory Workshop 1995 Arizona Phonology Conference Volume 5: University of Arizona Department of Linguistics Coyote Papers, 238-262.

Yip, Moira. 1996. Lexicon Optimization in Languages Without Alternations. In Jacques Durand and Bernard Laks (eds.) Current Trends in Phonology: Models and Methods, Vol. 2. Salford: University of Salford Publications, 757-788.

Yip, Moira. 1998. Identity Avoidance in Phonology and Morphology. In S. LaPointe, D. Brentari and P. Farrell (eds.) Morphology and its Relation to Phonology and Syntax. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications, 216-246.

Yip, Moira. 1999. Reduplication as Alliteration and Rhyme. Glot International 4/8.1-7.

Yip, Moira. 2001. Segmental Unmarkedness Versus Input Preservation in Reduplication. In L. Lombardi (ed.), Segmental Phonology in Optimality Theory, Cambridge University Press, 206-230.

Yu Jiongbiao, Wil Snyder, and Donna Snyder. 1994. Two initial grammatical discoveries in the Fucun speech of Libo Buyi. In Stuart R. Milliken (ed.), SIL Occasional Papers on the Minority Languages of China vol. 1, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Hong Kong, 1-11.

Zeng, Xiaoyu and Yao Fuxiang. 1996. Hanshui Cidian [Chinese-Sui Dictionary]. Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing.

Zhang, Junru. 1980. Shuiyu Jianzhi [Sketch of the Sui language]. Beijing: Minorities Publishing House.

Author's contact information:

James Stanford

Rice University

Department of Linguistics

Herring Hall 217

(713)348-2956

stanford@rice.edu

^[1]I would like to thank Yen-Hwei Lin for her extensive advice on this project, the Sui people who patiently taught me to speak their language and kindly allowed me to elicit this set of data, Jerold Edmondson, Tim and Debbie Vinzani, Grover Hudson, Dennis Preston, David Dwyer, the editors and reviewers of Journal of East Asian Linguistics, the audience at the Third Workshop on Theoretical East Asian Linguistics, and Qiannan Minority Teacher College.

^[2] Shuiyu Diaocha Baogao [Report on Investigations of the Sui language] is an unpublished manuscript from 1956. A copy of the manuscript was acquired through the help of Jerold Edmondson.

^[3]In the region under investigation, the sound represented by /w/ is usually perceived as having a labio-dental place of articulation when it occurs in syllable-initial position. It may be that it is a labio-dental approximant (cf. Edmondson et al. 2004). The underlying form is not yet entirely clear, so the sound is transcribed [v] in syllable-initial position in this study.

^[4] Future study may reveal that the checked tones could be combined with corresponding unchecked tones into an underlying system of just six tones. Li (1948) opts to use all eight tones for clarity, and this transcription system is adopted here.

Lexicon and Description of Sui Adjective Intensifiers

1. Introduction[1]

1.1 Sui Phonology

1.2 Sui Adjective Intensifiers

2. Analysis

2.1 The rhyming class

2.2 The alliterative class

2.3 Patterned variety

3. The lexicon

3.1 The Alliterative Class

3.1.1 Checked base, unchecked reduplicant

3.1.2 Checked base, checked reduplicant

3.1.3. Unchecked base, checked reduplicant

3.1.4 Unchecked base, unchecked reduplicant

3.1.4.1 Nasal-final base, nasal-final reduplicant

3.1.4.2 Nasal-final base, vowel/glide-final reduplicant

3.1.4.3 Vowel/glide-final base, nasal-final reduplicant

3.1.4.4 Vowel/glide-final base, vowel/glide-final reduplicant

3.2 The rhyming class

Group 1 Labial base onsets

Group 2. Dorsal base onsets

Group 3. Glottal base onsets

Group 4. Coronal base onsets

Subset 4.2.2:

Group 5. Fully reduplicated pairs

Group 6. Three-syllable rhyming expressions

3.3 The No-Pattern Class

References

1. Introduction^[1]